Literature Review
E-Tools and e-Portfolios: Supporting reflective, self-directed learning practice and learning for life.
Introduction
The development of young people towards becoming responsible, self-directed reflective learners and autonomous human beings is a major goal of education in the 21st century. Life-long and life-wide learning will be essential in our present world, which is characterised by change and diversity, and it is therefore critical that we learn to take increasing control of our thinking and learning and become self-directed learners. It is the view of Fox (2008) that we, as teachers, need to prepare our students for the present knowledge and creative age, and that this requires the teaching of 21st century skills to enable them to be “confident, connected, actively involved, reflective, lifelong learners” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 7).
It is the purpose of this literature review to examine the concepts of reflective practice and self- directed learning and to provide a clear link between these learning practices. I will also discuss how these practices contribute to, impact on and support the development of independent, life-long learning. The review will also examine how a developing knowledge of e-tools and the use of e-portfolios can be used to develop, support, demonstrate and facilitate further development of these learning practices.
The use of free, open source, suitable web tools which are available, safe internet use for students and learning management systems suitable for use in establishing e-portfolios will not be examined or covered in this review but are aspects for consideration. Likewise, the advantages and disadvantages of work portfolios, as well as the different types of portfolios that have been developed to showcase students’ learning may be referred to in this review, but will not be the focus of examination and critical discussion.
It is accepted that reflective practice in education promotes the possibility of deep and significant learning. In answering the questions regarding what it means to engage in reflective practice and how reflective practice may encourage deep levels of learning, Brockbank and McGill (2008) state “one may convey the idea that once cognitively understood as a concept, then reflective practice is a straightforward rational process” (p. 85). However, they draw our attention to the important fact that, “a cognitive understanding of reflective practice is only a step towards what is, in practice, a complex and holistic endeavour” (p. 85).
Reflective practice
In the ongoing search for knowledge, engaging in reflective practice is a means by which a student learner is “enabled to develop the capacity to keep an eye on themselves, and to engage in critical dialogue with themselves in all they think and do…it is a reflexive process in which the student interrogates her/her thoughts and actions. The learning outcome to be desired, from every student, is that of the reflective practitioner” (Brockbank & McGill, 2008; Barnett, 1992a, p.198). In the past, some of the most interesting and important work in the field of cognition and instruction has focused on students’ understanding of and theorizing about their own thinking or cognitive processes. Brown (1987) points out that “discussion about the importance of what we presently refer to as “metacognition” and “theory of mind” goes back at least as far as Plato” (p. 1). She explains that in the past century, there were many influential thinkers such as Dewey, Piaget, and Vygotsky, who argued that knowledge and control of one’s own cognitive systems, plays a key role in cognitive development (Brown, 1987, p. 1).
Recent research done by Baird, Fensham, Gunstone, & White, 1991; Chi, Bassock, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989; Schauble & Glaser, 1990; and Schoenfeld, 1987, in this area, adds additional theoretical and empirical support to Brown’s point, and the argument regarding the important role that metacognition plays in students’ academic performance and cognitive development.
Ertmer & Newby (1996) support the viewpoints of Baird et al. and Brown and they state, “reflecting on the process of learning is believed to be an essential ingredient in the development of expert learners” (p. 1). They stress the importance of reflective learning by stating that “by employing reflective thinking skills to evaluate the results of one's own learning efforts, awareness of effective learning strategies can be increased and ways to use these strategies in other learning situations can be understood” (p. 1).
Fox (2008) adds to this argument by stating that reflective practice encourages students to think critically about their own progress and to make decisions about what they could do to make improvements in their future learning. He states importantly that this learning style helps students understand their strengths and their areas of need, as well as identify specific, measurable learning actions. He stresses that reflective practice helps students plan and determine their future learning goals, and helps them to take control over their own learning. (Fox, 2008).
Fox’s view of reflective practice is that this practice should involve the learner’s meta-cognitive development. He believes that through the practices of student goal setting and critical reflection, as well as through the introduction and implementation of thinking and learning models such as Edward De Bonos’ Six Thinking Hats, and Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning, that the kind of thinking that supports cognitive development and reflection , will be developed (Fox, 2008, p. 1).
Fox (2008) draws our attention to another important aspect of reflective practice, and explains that this kind of thinking also assists students in assessment for their learning rather than simply, assessment of their learning.
To further support these views expressed on reflective practice, Fox recommends that a portfolio or reflective journal could be used to provide the necessary scaffolds, structures, standards and thinking that enable students to become involved in self-assessment and reflection (p. 1). He justifies the use of a reflective portfolio or journal it “assists students to develop the ability to look at their own progress as learners and encourages them to begin to see what they could do to assist their own future progress” (Fox, 2008, p. 1). Fox is convinced that this kind of critical thinking together with scaffolded structures for supporting this thinking, works towards the end goal of developing of self-directed, independent learners (Fox, 2008, p. 1).
(Branch & Paranjape, 2002) support the viewpoint of Fox and state that reflective practice can be “encouraged through the use of a reflective journal, the use of self-evaluative tools as well as through peer collaboration and feedback” (pp. 1185-1188). Branch & Paranjape (2002) also outline strategies for promoting reflection, explaining “one should use "How?" rather than "Why?" reflections, provide tools for reflective practice like reflective worksheets, ask leading questions that encourage descriptive responses, consider the use of video or audio recording as a useful self-evaluation and feedback tool and promote peer learning and reflection through group and individual sessions” (Branch & Paranjape, 2002, pp. 1185-1188).
Reflective practice and critical self awareness are important changes that should occur during our education, where the student is brought from a position of relying on others for direction and judgments about their own learning, to the position of being a realistic self-directed learner.
However, it is important to note that literature reveals that there is a deficiency in teaching and learning strategies and innovative thinking, in the range of tools that could be used to promote the skills of reflective practice and critical thinking, that underpins self- directed, life-long learning.
While there is little information on specific teaching strategies, Saylor (1990) has identified a safe environment as a critical factor and essential to learning the skill of self-reflection. It is his view that a safe environment “is one in which students are free to examine and reflect on their work, thoughtfully and honestly without fear and reprisal” (p. 2).
Callister et al. also identify the use of a reflective journal as a means of providing a private and confidential environment within which students can scrutinize their own learning experiences and develop their reflective skills. (Callister 1993; Cameron & Mitchell 1993; McAlpine 1992; Saylor, 1990)
It is important to note here that the use of e-Portfolios, which, by their very nature, are public, may lie in conflict with the identified purpose of a reflective journal as presented by Callister et al.
Callister (1993) outlines the benefits of the use of a reflective portfolio or journal as a learning tool and explains, “learning happens as journal writing connects the student with self, and that this process encourages the practices of self analysis and critical thinking” (p. 2). He goes on to say that reflecting on journal entries enables students to make connections and see correlations between knowledge and understanding (theory) and next steps to learning (practice).
Callister believes that reflective writing or reflective audio is a teaching/learning strategy where both the student and the teacher share the responsibility of students’ learning. McAllister also states reflections could be used by both the students and the teachers, to learn from past learning, to assess progress and identify next learning steps (p. 2). Minghella and Benson (1995) are of the viewpoint that “it is only through the independent reflective process, that students are truly able to progress to self-direction” (p. 2).
Reflective learning practice helps students accept responsibility for their own personal growth and helps them to see and make clear links between the learning experience and learning outcomes. Reflective practice allows, and gives students the opportunity to articulate and assess the value of the learning experience for themselves, and to know why they are learning and what they are learning. Reflective practice also teaches students how to teach themselves to learn how to learn.
Newell (1992) is of the opinion that “the progressive skills of reflection and critical thinking are fundamental to the development of the self directed learning process” (p. 2).
Self-directed learners
Knowles defines self-directed learning as “a process in which individuals take the initiative in diagnosing their learning needs, designing learning experiences, locating resources and evaluating their learning” (p. 183). Knowles states "learners need to know why they need to know” (Knowles, 1976, p. 183). Malcolm Knowles (1995) affirms this position of thinking and defines self-directed learning as “ a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (p. 18).
Jennings further supports these views and states “self-directed learning is not a philosophy, nor is it a set of techniques to be applied by an institution wanting to teach a self-directed programme, but rather it is an internalised process related to motivation and self-identity, something that happens within a person, not something that is done to them” (Jennings, 2006, pp. 1, 2, 7, 12).
Abdullah (2001) outlines another characteristic of the self-directed learner and says that self-directed learners are “responsible owners and managers of their own learning process” (p. 1).
From the definitions of self-directed learning and the supporting literature, it would seem that a common viewpoint is that, in order to understand and help students achieve the many traits characteristic of a self-directed learner, teachers, parents, and students must understand the concepts of student motivation, meta-cognition, self-regulation and goal orientation. It is suggested that these concepts provide the foundation for a student seeking to become a self-directed learner.
It is however important to note that Lumsden et al. are of the opinion that “although a student can become a self-directed learner without explicit instruction and development of these traits, it is more likely to occur when teachers understand and foster them at the classroom or school level” (Lumsden, 1999; Renchler, 1992; Biemiller & Meichenbaum, 1992, p. 2).
Another significant factor identified in the literature on self-directed learning is the aspect of curriculum. When supporting this kind of development, it is important to note that a student cannot become a self-directed learner without becoming engaged in a curriculum that allows this to happen. Self-directed learners and learning requires the option of student choice and the possibility of a level of student responsibility. To support self-directed learning, “teachers need to raise awareness of the students' role in directing their own learning” (Abdullah, 2001, p. 3). Abdullah goes on to make some recommendations for educators in their support of facilitating self-directed learning practice. He recommends “teachers need to shift some of the responsibility for learning, from themselves to the learner” (p. 3). Abdullah states “for self-directed learning to be developed, educators need to encourage study skills, inquiry, questioning, and an atmosphere where errors are acceptable during the process of arriving at correct answers” (p. 4). He also recommends that “teachers need to avoid taking the shortest path to eliciting correct answers and need to help students to determine correct answers through critical questioning” (Abdullah, 2001, p. 5). Abdullah concludes, “self-directed learning requires teachers to provide opportunities for students to self-monitor, revise work, and reflect on their own thinking and learning processes” (Abdullah, 2001, p. 6).
It has been interesting to note that various disciplines within education have long promoted self-directed learning as desirable. There is evidence that research within the fields of adult education (Garrison, 1997), gifted education (Schillereff, 2001), and Web-based and distance learning (Scheidet, 2003) has shown the effectiveness of this learning strategy.
However, there is some debate as to whether or not this concept works for K–12 students as a way to enhance their responsibility, within the present context of accountability systems, state standards, school policies and current teaching practice.
It is also interesting to note that in literature presented by Ramsay & Pitts, there is the view that the concept of the self-directed learner is “more complex than fitting a simple reflective model” (pp. 166-77). It is their view that “people’s tendency to control their own learning is not necessarily determined by increasing their reflective abilities, but by meta-cognitive processes which depend upon personality type, learning style preference, cognitive style, past experiences, subject studied, acquired competencies, or all or none of these” (Ramsay & Pitts, pp. 166-77).
Other questions that add to this debate relate to whether or not self-directed learning is appropriate for all students, and whether or not it leads to enhanced student achievement?
It would seem from the above discussions that there is a link between the concepts of reflective practice, metacognition, and self-directed learning, which defines and shapes effective life-long learning (Garrison, 1997). It would also seem that key dimensions of monitoring (reflection) and managing (action) the learning process and the controlling and regulating of one’s own cognitive activities and actual behaviour, are related, in the acquisition of skills that support life-long learning (Garcia & Pintrich, 1994).
Life-long Learning
As a concept, ‘life-long learning’ has seemed unclear, and has been used “across all levels of education, from classroom-based through to adult education and to policy, for the past three decades” (Papadopoulos 2002, p. 10). Until the 1990s, the concept was identified most often in relation to adult and post-compulsory education. (Papadopoulos 2002). Faure and Husen explain that the term ‘ life-long learning’, “stood alongside others such as ‘adult education’ and ‘vocational education’ and was focused around ensuring that adults were entitled and encouraged to access formal post-compulsory and continuing education” (Faure 1972; Husen, 1974, p. 10). However, since the mid-1990s, there has been a shift towards thinking around the concept of life-long learning that includes “all learning that enhances and contributes to knowledge and skills” (OECD, 1996, p. 10). It is assumed and taken for granted in the literature on life-long learning, that there are various generic skills, attitudes and capabilities essential to becoming a life-long learner. It is thought that the development of these skills begins at birth and they are honed and shaped through thoughtful, purposeful and effective educational practices. It has also been expressed that there is a clear link in the research literature and the anecdotal experiences of teachers, between effective learning, motivation to learn and engagement in the learning experiences. Literature identifies a clear set of characteristics, needs and abilities associated with becoming a life-long learner. These include the establishment of and being involvement in learning communities, higher order thinking, critical and reflective consideration of issues and problems, new pedagogies and having the learning contexts required to achieve higher learning outcomes. However it is interesting to note that this literature fails to present an adequate picture of what these skills and attitudes and contexts actually look like in the actual classroom and what strategies, organisational patterns, programmes and community connections act together to bring about the development of life-long learning habits. In an attempt to clarify this picture, it is necessary to review literature that examined successful life-long learning classroom scenarios in action.
Characteristics that define the life-long learner in the learning context?
Life-long learning has been described as “continual learning: learning how to do; how to know; how to be; and how to” (Watson 2003, p. 6), and a ‘lifelong learning’ orientation to education is seen as vital if young people are to thrive in a knowledge rich, constantly changing world of today, and in the immediate future. The Queensland School Curriculum Council (2002) identified a life-long learner as “a knowledgeable person with deep understanding, a complex thinker, a creative person, an active investigator, an effective communicator, a participant in an interdependent world, and a reflective and self-directed learner” (p. 8). From this definition, it is evident that an increasingly sophisticated set of skills and attitudes are necessary and associated with life-long learning and becoming a life-long learner.
While the role of schools in the broader life-long learning agenda is still being debated (Istance, 2003), there does seem to be more information on the range of key characteristics of life-long learning and learners, desired for post-compulsory education. It is important to note however that “a description of these characteristics, along with the recognition that they must be developed throughout life rather than through post school education alone, has meant that primary and secondary education providers are now turning their attention toward framing curriculum in these terms” (OECD, 2000, p. 13). The recent OECD work on Definition and selection of competencies (Rychen & Salganik 2001, 2003), (Istance, 2003, pp. 95-97) identifies a set of key competencies and abilities considered fundamental to life-long learning that which could be incorporated into teaching and learning at the compulsory phase of schooling. According to the OECD, “children, before leaving the formal education system, must have learned how to learn, under self-motivated and self-manage conditions” (OECD, 2000, p. 22). The OECD notes that the core learning processes that lay the foundations for life-long learning include “learning and thinking techniques; ways of organising knowledge; forms of expression; and interpersonal social relations” (2000, p. 22). In support of these guidelines, Trier and Peschar (1995) are of the viewpoint that the development of the following competencies and skills would provide a strong generic framework for developing life-long learning and learners: “problem solving; critical thinking; communication; democratic values; understanding of political processes; and self-perception and self-confidence” (p. 250).
Developing a culture of this kind of thinking and thinking to learn, embedded in classroom practice, is essential in establishing a shared understanding of the International Commission on Education for the 21st Century’s report to UNESCO, which defines learning to know “as the type of learning that is concerned less with the acquisition of structured knowledge than with the mastery of learning tools” (p. 4). Innis supports this explanation of learning to know by saying that learning to know implies how to learn by “developing one’s concentration, memory skills and ability to think” (Judy Innis, 2007, p. 3).
With the common thread of ‘thinking’ or ‘metacognition’ entwined in reflective practice, self-directed learning and life-long learning, Clark shares the view that acquired thinking skills will “help learners cope with life after school and prepare them for citizenship, help them to consider issues from other people’s point of view, value other peoples opinions, respect others, recognize differences, be motivated to learn and enjoy learning, and be more aware of how they learn” (Judy Innis, 2007, p. 9). Clark emphasises that thinking and learning are inextricably linked, explaining “when students learn how to learn, when they are armed with a wide repertoire of tools to encourage diverse thinking, when they are tutored on the ways in which thinking tools are layered and framed to ensure rigor and deep thinking, they are empowered to stretch their own thinking and learning” (Judy Innis, 2007, p. 9). Clark concludes, “when students understand the hierarchy of thinking and are provided with tools to think at a variety of levels, they become empowered to stretch their own learning” (Judy Innis, 2007, p. 9). The terms ‘learners and thinkers’ and ‘life-long learners’ frequently appear in the New Zealand Curriculum. Judy Innis (2007) states that “if as educators we are serious about developing life long learners’ for life long learning, then thinking is critical for learning, and teaching for effective learning needs to provide tools and strategies for learning to think and thinking to learn” (p. 10).
From the literature it would seem that if students are to become truly global citizens for the future, teachers will need to teach the strategies and skills identified and those that support and underpin self-directed reflection. They will also have to provide a safe context that supports inquiring reflection and provide a platform for the sharing of these reflections of the learning process, in order to support self-directed, life-long learning (Garcia & Pintrich, 1994).
What can schools and teachers do to assist with this process? An e-Portfolio and knowledge of e- tools could be used by teachers to support and assist with the development of these competencies, concepts and future skills and move learners towards learner centred, self-directed learning.
E-Tools and e-Portfolios: Supporting, reflective, self-directed learning practice and learning for life.
How does an e-Portfolio differ from a reflective journal of the more traditional paper kind? Depending on its purpose, maybe not at all. e-Portfolios often take on the role of traditional presentation or paper portfolios. However, from a pedagogical perspective, e-Portfolios are valuable when they take the form of learning and/or assessment portfolios, displaying both “products” and “process” of student learning. With the option of the present day technology that is now available, there are so many more options for learners in terms of illustrating their thinking, their strengths and their abilities. e-Portfolios can provide far more evidence of learning and can show far more of the actual process than the more traditional reflective journal or paper portfolio. The e-Portfolio, in its reflection of the learning process itself, can be used as well, as a strategy for promoting meta-cognition. Scallon (2003, cited referred to in Alves, 2007) promotes e-Portfolios as learning and assessment instruments grounded in the capacity of meta-cognition, which encourage students involved in the assessment (self-assessment) and reflection (meta-cognition) of their own learning, with a view to carrying our actions which result in improvement (self-regulation) or self-directed learning. These principles are pertinent to students and active professionals with an outlook based on life-long learning. “E-Portfolios have the potential to enhance teaching, learning and assessment practices” (Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005, p. 1).
Definitions of e-Portfolios vary considerably, but in general they all refer to “the electronic gathering of a range of student work collected and stored in some electronic format” (Fox, 2008, p. 4). However, Banks, in his reference to the e-Portfolio as “an electronic format for learners to record their work, their achievements and their goals, to reflect on their learning, and to share and be supported in this” (Banks, 2004, p. 3), identifies a number of key elements that should be considered and evident in the implementation and use of e-Portfolios. Firstly, he states that
e-Portfolios need to provide the possibility for learners to represent information in different formats and that students should also be able to take the information with them as they move between institutions (Banks, 2004, p. 3). Bank’s also talks of the e-Portfolio showing achievement, and stresses the significance of this feature. He talks about the tools used to demonstrate achievement and makes it clear that these should be suitable and appropriate in demonstrating evidence of the learner’s progress and successes against clearly stated criteria. Bank’s is also of the view that the e-Portfolio should be more than simply a random collection of completed work, stored electronically, with no particular focus. Bank’s definition of e-Portfolios and the supporting comment also talks about student goals and how important it is that the e-Portfolio provides a platform where students can share and reflect on these. Fox supports this thinking and it is his view that “goal setting and reflection are critical skills if we as educators are to have our students learn to take increasing responsibility for their own learning. They must be able to look at their work, reflect on this and determine what they have done well, where they have had difficulties, and what they could do in the future to make improvements” (Fox 2008, p. 4).
Bank’s writing goes on to speak about thinking processes, and the importance of developing higher-order thinking and reflection of learning. He explains that e-Portfolios must provide a place for feedback and feedforward from teachers, parents and peers. Supporting literature explains that by constantly monitoring portfolio content, both teachers and students can regulate their learning (Asturias, 1994, p. 698) and by doing so, teachers are able to detect what students think and feel, how their reasoning is processed, and what kinds of attitudes they display towards specific learning context. Regular and constant monitoring of
e-Portfolios can also provide the teacher with indicators of learning needs and requests for help. Garrison (1999, p. 94) refers to the fact that even when applied over a relatively short space of time, e-Portfolios can provide the teacher with clear indicators of learning needs and requests for help. Monitoring of the developmental processes of students’
e-Portfolios also provides teachers with the opportunity to reflect on their actual pedagogy and practice, stimulate questioning of their teaching strategies and methodologies and encourage teachers to look for new approaches to teaching.
Bank’s definition also refers to the opportunities students have with current technology, to present information in a variety of formats. Banks states “with the knowledge we now have about differing learning styles and multiple intelligences, it is essential students have opportunities to present their work in ways that are most meaningful for them. As a motivational tool, technology can be a powerful factor for some who struggle to see the relevance of what is happening in their classrooms relative to their daily lives” (Banks, 2004, p. 3).
Barrett (2005) refers to evidence in the e-Portfolio as being not only the completed work that the learner puts in the e-Portfolio, but also the “accompanying rationale that the learner provides, their argument as to why these artifacts constitute evidence of achieving specific goals, outcomes or standards” (p. 5).
From the literature, a common feature with other definitions of e-Portfolios is that they should be self-reflective collections. However, in the way that as with explicit teaching of skills and strategies that support as self- directed reflective practice, so does the explicit teaching of specific e-tools that could be used to support and demonstrate the learning process, achievements and critical, reflective thinking. The broadening of knowledge of available and appropriate e-tools has to be developed so that suitable choices can be made in reflecting and directing learning. The evaluation by students of use of e-tools and a reflection onf their progress made in using the tools is another essential aspect in the move towards meta-cognitive and self-directed learning practice.
In the literature, it is interesting to note that in 2007, Becta, the UK Government’s lead agency for Information and Communication Technology, was given the task of leading the Government’s e- learning strategy to see how the new technologies could be used to help improve educational outcomes. Within this strategy, Becta commissioned the University of Nottingham to conduct research into the impact of e-Portfolios on learning. Researchers studied eight e-Portfolio projects currently in operation in the UK to determine the impact e-Portfolios had on both learning processes and outcomes (Becta, 2007 in Fox, 2008, p. 14). Amongst other findings they reported “e-Portfolios had the greatest impact on learning when they were fully integrated into the day-to-day learning programme, rather than when they were used as a discreet entity.” The report goes on to say that where this integration occurred “there was likely to be a substantial impact both on learning processes and learning outcomes.” It was also interesting to note that these findings were consistent irrespective of student ability levels (Becta, 2007 in Fox, 2008, p. 14). In addition, it is interesting to note that literature supports the view that teachers using e-Portfolios, noted that the change in educational praxis was inherent in the actual implementation and use of the e-Portfolio. Stenmark (1999, p. 35) talks about a classroom situation in which e-Portfolios were used, where the teacher’s style of teaching actually changed. The potential that e-Portfolios have in bringing about a change in pedagogical practice has led to the conclusion that its adoption may not only benefit students but also provide an excellent opportunity for professional reflection and review of teaching practice for teachers. Kuhs says “perhaps the most important argument favouring the use of e-Portfolios is in its power to bring about change” (1994, p. 335).
It is relevant at this point to share that one real concern with e-Portfolios is the danger that the technology can become the end point rather than it being the tool to support learning. The e-Portfolio is not an end in itself but it is a platform that can be used to develop, support and demonstrate reflective learning practice, and self-directed learning. Fox states “it is important that unless there is a clear and focused purpose for the e-Portfolio, understood by teachers, students and parents, then it is possible that the technological ‘whistles and bells’ available so readily, and which students do so enjoy, can very easily become the primary focus for its use” (Fox, 2008, p. 15). He warns us “the e-Portfolio may have a great structure to support reflective, self-directed learning, but there is a possibility, that it may not support real learning based on reflective practice if used without a specific purpose in mind” (Fox, 2008, p. 15). He encourages teachers contemplating the development of e-Portfolios within their own classes, to “ensure they are very clear about the purpose, or purposes for the e-Portfolio beyond those of technical competence” Fox (2008, p. 15). He advises that teachers, when thinking of developing e-Portfolios, “should always be asking themselves if the e-Portfolio is about their teaching supported by student evidence or if the e-Portfolio is about student learning supported by teacher guidance” (Fox, 2008, p. 15).
Fox (2008) advises that for e-Portfolios to have the greatest impact on learning, teaching structures should not be too restrictive and students should be given the opportunity to be creative, innovative and imaginative in representing their thinking and presenting the process and product of their learning. He explains that school and classroom structures should allow for flexibility and creativity and explains that in the teaching situation, students should be given the opportunity to self-select material for inclusion in their e-Portfolios and they should also be encouraged to make and show connections across subject disciplines. It is his opinion that the e-Portfolio should provide more than simply evidence of learning but also evidence of process, reflection, celebrations and feedback of and for learning. Fox explains “ownership should ultimately remain with the students in the development of their e-Portfolio” so that over time “they develop revealing stories about their learning and the interrelationships between the many facets of their learning lives to enable personal growth and development to occur” (Fox, 2008, p. 15).
Fox outlines the benefits of using an e-Portfolio as a reflective journal and explains that it can be used as a “catalyst to stimulate and motivate students and to have them more highly engaged in their learning. It can assist students to see greater relevance in their learning. It can support the development of 21st century skills while encouraging creativity and innovation. In this age of information explosion it can help with the development of skills to process information and determine its relevance. It can encourage students to explore multiple answers to a range of issues. It can develop students’ ability to reflect on their learning and to set their own future learning goals. It can be a vehicle to help develop self-esteem through the sharing of quality work with feedback from a variety of sources” (Fox, 2008, p. 17). Fox strongly supports the view that the most significant benefit of the e-Portfolio is that it “can assist students in their understanding that learning is something they do, and that it is not something that teachers do to them.” He believes that e-Portfolios empower students to “take a greater degree of control over their own learning and move further along the path towards being truly confident, connected, actively involved, life-long learners” (Fox, 2008, p. 17).
Developing a knowledge of e-tools
Fox explains, “e-Portfolios can provide evidence of learning in a manner that is often difficult to replicate in any other way” (p. 4). He states “technology allows a greater degree of information, particularly related to process, to be included” and explains how “the use of video, sound and images, as well as text, can be used to track the learning journey and to provide evidence of the learning process and not simply the final end product” (Fox, 2008, p. 8).
An important aspect regarding the use of freely accessible e-tools in reflective practice is that technology allows for the students “voice” to be heard. Giving students the opportunity to record their own thoughts with respect to a finished piece of work or a learning process and file this within the e-Portfolio attached to the work itself, is a very powerful form of reflection and often very insightful. Fox (2008) is of the opinion “the power of ‘student voice’ should not be underestimated” (p. 8). He explains, “to hear students reflecting on their own work, in their own voice, with their own intonations and expressions, conveys meaning in a manner that is simply not possible in written form” (Fox, 2008, p. 8). He states “deep and meaningful reflection occurs where students have the opportunity to think critically about their work and speak openly about their progress in a secure environment” (p. 8) and goes on to say “this critical reflection helps personalise learning, encouraging students to question, to challenge and to celebrate their successes” (p. 8). He further explains that it “encourages students to review their progress over time and to look more critically at their own role in the learning process” (Fox, 2008, p. 8).
Conclusion
To be a good teacher and educator in the rapid changing and shifting landscape of the information age requires that we teach and model skills and strategies which support research, collaboration, information management, planning, reviewing, critical thinking, reflection and evaluation. Literature in this area of learning has highlighted the importance of encouraging and sustaining young people’s effective engagement with learning, and relevant research literature indicates that insightful and thoughtfully applied educational practices, can significantly affect the development of the habit of life-long learning, by heightening specialised competencies and abilities related to developing reflective practice which supports self-directed learning. Researchers believe that the modification of professional practice to promote and maintain the long-term maintenance of these learning skills is a key focus for educational renewal, as life-long learning becomes more recognised as a highly desirable attribute of learners.
As I engage in professional reflection of my own practice in this field, I aim to move towards creating an environment and providing learning contexts and experiences where the students in my class will have the opportunity to engage in and reflect on meaningful learning, with meta-cognitive awareness, and take responsibility to manage and monitor their learning. After reviewing the literature, I feel that I have a responsibility to understand how to facilitate such learning effectively in a variety of educational contexts. I believe that this kind of learning has the potential to create the cognitive presence that will support higher-order thinking, reflective practice and self-directed learners who are learners for life. I believe that developing e-Portfolios as the platform for reflective practice, will encourage and allow students to make connections across learning areas and give them the opportunity to show evidence of their thinking. Adopting a digital, online version of e-Portfolio, will allow the students to take on a multimedia dimension, and will provide greater visibility of their learning as they become collaborative, connected, life-long learners.
References
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E-Tools and e-Portfolios: Supporting reflective, self-directed learning practice and learning for life.
Introduction
The development of young people towards becoming responsible, self-directed reflective learners and autonomous human beings is a major goal of education in the 21st century. Life-long and life-wide learning will be essential in our present world, which is characterised by change and diversity, and it is therefore critical that we learn to take increasing control of our thinking and learning and become self-directed learners. It is the view of Fox (2008) that we, as teachers, need to prepare our students for the present knowledge and creative age, and that this requires the teaching of 21st century skills to enable them to be “confident, connected, actively involved, reflective, lifelong learners” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 7).
It is the purpose of this literature review to examine the concepts of reflective practice and self- directed learning and to provide a clear link between these learning practices. I will also discuss how these practices contribute to, impact on and support the development of independent, life-long learning. The review will also examine how a developing knowledge of e-tools and the use of e-portfolios can be used to develop, support, demonstrate and facilitate further development of these learning practices.
The use of free, open source, suitable web tools which are available, safe internet use for students and learning management systems suitable for use in establishing e-portfolios will not be examined or covered in this review but are aspects for consideration. Likewise, the advantages and disadvantages of work portfolios, as well as the different types of portfolios that have been developed to showcase students’ learning may be referred to in this review, but will not be the focus of examination and critical discussion.
It is accepted that reflective practice in education promotes the possibility of deep and significant learning. In answering the questions regarding what it means to engage in reflective practice and how reflective practice may encourage deep levels of learning, Brockbank and McGill (2008) state “one may convey the idea that once cognitively understood as a concept, then reflective practice is a straightforward rational process” (p. 85). However, they draw our attention to the important fact that, “a cognitive understanding of reflective practice is only a step towards what is, in practice, a complex and holistic endeavour” (p. 85).
Reflective practice
In the ongoing search for knowledge, engaging in reflective practice is a means by which a student learner is “enabled to develop the capacity to keep an eye on themselves, and to engage in critical dialogue with themselves in all they think and do…it is a reflexive process in which the student interrogates her/her thoughts and actions. The learning outcome to be desired, from every student, is that of the reflective practitioner” (Brockbank & McGill, 2008; Barnett, 1992a, p.198). In the past, some of the most interesting and important work in the field of cognition and instruction has focused on students’ understanding of and theorizing about their own thinking or cognitive processes. Brown (1987) points out that “discussion about the importance of what we presently refer to as “metacognition” and “theory of mind” goes back at least as far as Plato” (p. 1). She explains that in the past century, there were many influential thinkers such as Dewey, Piaget, and Vygotsky, who argued that knowledge and control of one’s own cognitive systems, plays a key role in cognitive development (Brown, 1987, p. 1).
Recent research done by Baird, Fensham, Gunstone, & White, 1991; Chi, Bassock, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989; Schauble & Glaser, 1990; and Schoenfeld, 1987, in this area, adds additional theoretical and empirical support to Brown’s point, and the argument regarding the important role that metacognition plays in students’ academic performance and cognitive development.
Ertmer & Newby (1996) support the viewpoints of Baird et al. and Brown and they state, “reflecting on the process of learning is believed to be an essential ingredient in the development of expert learners” (p. 1). They stress the importance of reflective learning by stating that “by employing reflective thinking skills to evaluate the results of one's own learning efforts, awareness of effective learning strategies can be increased and ways to use these strategies in other learning situations can be understood” (p. 1).
Fox (2008) adds to this argument by stating that reflective practice encourages students to think critically about their own progress and to make decisions about what they could do to make improvements in their future learning. He states importantly that this learning style helps students understand their strengths and their areas of need, as well as identify specific, measurable learning actions. He stresses that reflective practice helps students plan and determine their future learning goals, and helps them to take control over their own learning. (Fox, 2008).
Fox’s view of reflective practice is that this practice should involve the learner’s meta-cognitive development. He believes that through the practices of student goal setting and critical reflection, as well as through the introduction and implementation of thinking and learning models such as Edward De Bonos’ Six Thinking Hats, and Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning, that the kind of thinking that supports cognitive development and reflection , will be developed (Fox, 2008, p. 1).
Fox (2008) draws our attention to another important aspect of reflective practice, and explains that this kind of thinking also assists students in assessment for their learning rather than simply, assessment of their learning.
To further support these views expressed on reflective practice, Fox recommends that a portfolio or reflective journal could be used to provide the necessary scaffolds, structures, standards and thinking that enable students to become involved in self-assessment and reflection (p. 1). He justifies the use of a reflective portfolio or journal it “assists students to develop the ability to look at their own progress as learners and encourages them to begin to see what they could do to assist their own future progress” (Fox, 2008, p. 1). Fox is convinced that this kind of critical thinking together with scaffolded structures for supporting this thinking, works towards the end goal of developing of self-directed, independent learners (Fox, 2008, p. 1).
(Branch & Paranjape, 2002) support the viewpoint of Fox and state that reflective practice can be “encouraged through the use of a reflective journal, the use of self-evaluative tools as well as through peer collaboration and feedback” (pp. 1185-1188). Branch & Paranjape (2002) also outline strategies for promoting reflection, explaining “one should use "How?" rather than "Why?" reflections, provide tools for reflective practice like reflective worksheets, ask leading questions that encourage descriptive responses, consider the use of video or audio recording as a useful self-evaluation and feedback tool and promote peer learning and reflection through group and individual sessions” (Branch & Paranjape, 2002, pp. 1185-1188).
Reflective practice and critical self awareness are important changes that should occur during our education, where the student is brought from a position of relying on others for direction and judgments about their own learning, to the position of being a realistic self-directed learner.
However, it is important to note that literature reveals that there is a deficiency in teaching and learning strategies and innovative thinking, in the range of tools that could be used to promote the skills of reflective practice and critical thinking, that underpins self- directed, life-long learning.
While there is little information on specific teaching strategies, Saylor (1990) has identified a safe environment as a critical factor and essential to learning the skill of self-reflection. It is his view that a safe environment “is one in which students are free to examine and reflect on their work, thoughtfully and honestly without fear and reprisal” (p. 2).
Callister et al. also identify the use of a reflective journal as a means of providing a private and confidential environment within which students can scrutinize their own learning experiences and develop their reflective skills. (Callister 1993; Cameron & Mitchell 1993; McAlpine 1992; Saylor, 1990)
It is important to note here that the use of e-Portfolios, which, by their very nature, are public, may lie in conflict with the identified purpose of a reflective journal as presented by Callister et al.
Callister (1993) outlines the benefits of the use of a reflective portfolio or journal as a learning tool and explains, “learning happens as journal writing connects the student with self, and that this process encourages the practices of self analysis and critical thinking” (p. 2). He goes on to say that reflecting on journal entries enables students to make connections and see correlations between knowledge and understanding (theory) and next steps to learning (practice).
Callister believes that reflective writing or reflective audio is a teaching/learning strategy where both the student and the teacher share the responsibility of students’ learning. McAllister also states reflections could be used by both the students and the teachers, to learn from past learning, to assess progress and identify next learning steps (p. 2). Minghella and Benson (1995) are of the viewpoint that “it is only through the independent reflective process, that students are truly able to progress to self-direction” (p. 2).
Reflective learning practice helps students accept responsibility for their own personal growth and helps them to see and make clear links between the learning experience and learning outcomes. Reflective practice allows, and gives students the opportunity to articulate and assess the value of the learning experience for themselves, and to know why they are learning and what they are learning. Reflective practice also teaches students how to teach themselves to learn how to learn.
Newell (1992) is of the opinion that “the progressive skills of reflection and critical thinking are fundamental to the development of the self directed learning process” (p. 2).
Self-directed learners
Knowles defines self-directed learning as “a process in which individuals take the initiative in diagnosing their learning needs, designing learning experiences, locating resources and evaluating their learning” (p. 183). Knowles states "learners need to know why they need to know” (Knowles, 1976, p. 183). Malcolm Knowles (1995) affirms this position of thinking and defines self-directed learning as “ a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (p. 18).
Jennings further supports these views and states “self-directed learning is not a philosophy, nor is it a set of techniques to be applied by an institution wanting to teach a self-directed programme, but rather it is an internalised process related to motivation and self-identity, something that happens within a person, not something that is done to them” (Jennings, 2006, pp. 1, 2, 7, 12).
Abdullah (2001) outlines another characteristic of the self-directed learner and says that self-directed learners are “responsible owners and managers of their own learning process” (p. 1).
From the definitions of self-directed learning and the supporting literature, it would seem that a common viewpoint is that, in order to understand and help students achieve the many traits characteristic of a self-directed learner, teachers, parents, and students must understand the concepts of student motivation, meta-cognition, self-regulation and goal orientation. It is suggested that these concepts provide the foundation for a student seeking to become a self-directed learner.
It is however important to note that Lumsden et al. are of the opinion that “although a student can become a self-directed learner without explicit instruction and development of these traits, it is more likely to occur when teachers understand and foster them at the classroom or school level” (Lumsden, 1999; Renchler, 1992; Biemiller & Meichenbaum, 1992, p. 2).
Another significant factor identified in the literature on self-directed learning is the aspect of curriculum. When supporting this kind of development, it is important to note that a student cannot become a self-directed learner without becoming engaged in a curriculum that allows this to happen. Self-directed learners and learning requires the option of student choice and the possibility of a level of student responsibility. To support self-directed learning, “teachers need to raise awareness of the students' role in directing their own learning” (Abdullah, 2001, p. 3). Abdullah goes on to make some recommendations for educators in their support of facilitating self-directed learning practice. He recommends “teachers need to shift some of the responsibility for learning, from themselves to the learner” (p. 3). Abdullah states “for self-directed learning to be developed, educators need to encourage study skills, inquiry, questioning, and an atmosphere where errors are acceptable during the process of arriving at correct answers” (p. 4). He also recommends that “teachers need to avoid taking the shortest path to eliciting correct answers and need to help students to determine correct answers through critical questioning” (Abdullah, 2001, p. 5). Abdullah concludes, “self-directed learning requires teachers to provide opportunities for students to self-monitor, revise work, and reflect on their own thinking and learning processes” (Abdullah, 2001, p. 6).
It has been interesting to note that various disciplines within education have long promoted self-directed learning as desirable. There is evidence that research within the fields of adult education (Garrison, 1997), gifted education (Schillereff, 2001), and Web-based and distance learning (Scheidet, 2003) has shown the effectiveness of this learning strategy.
However, there is some debate as to whether or not this concept works for K–12 students as a way to enhance their responsibility, within the present context of accountability systems, state standards, school policies and current teaching practice.
It is also interesting to note that in literature presented by Ramsay & Pitts, there is the view that the concept of the self-directed learner is “more complex than fitting a simple reflective model” (pp. 166-77). It is their view that “people’s tendency to control their own learning is not necessarily determined by increasing their reflective abilities, but by meta-cognitive processes which depend upon personality type, learning style preference, cognitive style, past experiences, subject studied, acquired competencies, or all or none of these” (Ramsay & Pitts, pp. 166-77).
Other questions that add to this debate relate to whether or not self-directed learning is appropriate for all students, and whether or not it leads to enhanced student achievement?
It would seem from the above discussions that there is a link between the concepts of reflective practice, metacognition, and self-directed learning, which defines and shapes effective life-long learning (Garrison, 1997). It would also seem that key dimensions of monitoring (reflection) and managing (action) the learning process and the controlling and regulating of one’s own cognitive activities and actual behaviour, are related, in the acquisition of skills that support life-long learning (Garcia & Pintrich, 1994).
Life-long Learning
As a concept, ‘life-long learning’ has seemed unclear, and has been used “across all levels of education, from classroom-based through to adult education and to policy, for the past three decades” (Papadopoulos 2002, p. 10). Until the 1990s, the concept was identified most often in relation to adult and post-compulsory education. (Papadopoulos 2002). Faure and Husen explain that the term ‘ life-long learning’, “stood alongside others such as ‘adult education’ and ‘vocational education’ and was focused around ensuring that adults were entitled and encouraged to access formal post-compulsory and continuing education” (Faure 1972; Husen, 1974, p. 10). However, since the mid-1990s, there has been a shift towards thinking around the concept of life-long learning that includes “all learning that enhances and contributes to knowledge and skills” (OECD, 1996, p. 10). It is assumed and taken for granted in the literature on life-long learning, that there are various generic skills, attitudes and capabilities essential to becoming a life-long learner. It is thought that the development of these skills begins at birth and they are honed and shaped through thoughtful, purposeful and effective educational practices. It has also been expressed that there is a clear link in the research literature and the anecdotal experiences of teachers, between effective learning, motivation to learn and engagement in the learning experiences. Literature identifies a clear set of characteristics, needs and abilities associated with becoming a life-long learner. These include the establishment of and being involvement in learning communities, higher order thinking, critical and reflective consideration of issues and problems, new pedagogies and having the learning contexts required to achieve higher learning outcomes. However it is interesting to note that this literature fails to present an adequate picture of what these skills and attitudes and contexts actually look like in the actual classroom and what strategies, organisational patterns, programmes and community connections act together to bring about the development of life-long learning habits. In an attempt to clarify this picture, it is necessary to review literature that examined successful life-long learning classroom scenarios in action.
Characteristics that define the life-long learner in the learning context?
Life-long learning has been described as “continual learning: learning how to do; how to know; how to be; and how to” (Watson 2003, p. 6), and a ‘lifelong learning’ orientation to education is seen as vital if young people are to thrive in a knowledge rich, constantly changing world of today, and in the immediate future. The Queensland School Curriculum Council (2002) identified a life-long learner as “a knowledgeable person with deep understanding, a complex thinker, a creative person, an active investigator, an effective communicator, a participant in an interdependent world, and a reflective and self-directed learner” (p. 8). From this definition, it is evident that an increasingly sophisticated set of skills and attitudes are necessary and associated with life-long learning and becoming a life-long learner.
While the role of schools in the broader life-long learning agenda is still being debated (Istance, 2003), there does seem to be more information on the range of key characteristics of life-long learning and learners, desired for post-compulsory education. It is important to note however that “a description of these characteristics, along with the recognition that they must be developed throughout life rather than through post school education alone, has meant that primary and secondary education providers are now turning their attention toward framing curriculum in these terms” (OECD, 2000, p. 13). The recent OECD work on Definition and selection of competencies (Rychen & Salganik 2001, 2003), (Istance, 2003, pp. 95-97) identifies a set of key competencies and abilities considered fundamental to life-long learning that which could be incorporated into teaching and learning at the compulsory phase of schooling. According to the OECD, “children, before leaving the formal education system, must have learned how to learn, under self-motivated and self-manage conditions” (OECD, 2000, p. 22). The OECD notes that the core learning processes that lay the foundations for life-long learning include “learning and thinking techniques; ways of organising knowledge; forms of expression; and interpersonal social relations” (2000, p. 22). In support of these guidelines, Trier and Peschar (1995) are of the viewpoint that the development of the following competencies and skills would provide a strong generic framework for developing life-long learning and learners: “problem solving; critical thinking; communication; democratic values; understanding of political processes; and self-perception and self-confidence” (p. 250).
Developing a culture of this kind of thinking and thinking to learn, embedded in classroom practice, is essential in establishing a shared understanding of the International Commission on Education for the 21st Century’s report to UNESCO, which defines learning to know “as the type of learning that is concerned less with the acquisition of structured knowledge than with the mastery of learning tools” (p. 4). Innis supports this explanation of learning to know by saying that learning to know implies how to learn by “developing one’s concentration, memory skills and ability to think” (Judy Innis, 2007, p. 3).
With the common thread of ‘thinking’ or ‘metacognition’ entwined in reflective practice, self-directed learning and life-long learning, Clark shares the view that acquired thinking skills will “help learners cope with life after school and prepare them for citizenship, help them to consider issues from other people’s point of view, value other peoples opinions, respect others, recognize differences, be motivated to learn and enjoy learning, and be more aware of how they learn” (Judy Innis, 2007, p. 9). Clark emphasises that thinking and learning are inextricably linked, explaining “when students learn how to learn, when they are armed with a wide repertoire of tools to encourage diverse thinking, when they are tutored on the ways in which thinking tools are layered and framed to ensure rigor and deep thinking, they are empowered to stretch their own thinking and learning” (Judy Innis, 2007, p. 9). Clark concludes, “when students understand the hierarchy of thinking and are provided with tools to think at a variety of levels, they become empowered to stretch their own learning” (Judy Innis, 2007, p. 9). The terms ‘learners and thinkers’ and ‘life-long learners’ frequently appear in the New Zealand Curriculum. Judy Innis (2007) states that “if as educators we are serious about developing life long learners’ for life long learning, then thinking is critical for learning, and teaching for effective learning needs to provide tools and strategies for learning to think and thinking to learn” (p. 10).
From the literature it would seem that if students are to become truly global citizens for the future, teachers will need to teach the strategies and skills identified and those that support and underpin self-directed reflection. They will also have to provide a safe context that supports inquiring reflection and provide a platform for the sharing of these reflections of the learning process, in order to support self-directed, life-long learning (Garcia & Pintrich, 1994).
What can schools and teachers do to assist with this process? An e-Portfolio and knowledge of e- tools could be used by teachers to support and assist with the development of these competencies, concepts and future skills and move learners towards learner centred, self-directed learning.
E-Tools and e-Portfolios: Supporting, reflective, self-directed learning practice and learning for life.
How does an e-Portfolio differ from a reflective journal of the more traditional paper kind? Depending on its purpose, maybe not at all. e-Portfolios often take on the role of traditional presentation or paper portfolios. However, from a pedagogical perspective, e-Portfolios are valuable when they take the form of learning and/or assessment portfolios, displaying both “products” and “process” of student learning. With the option of the present day technology that is now available, there are so many more options for learners in terms of illustrating their thinking, their strengths and their abilities. e-Portfolios can provide far more evidence of learning and can show far more of the actual process than the more traditional reflective journal or paper portfolio. The e-Portfolio, in its reflection of the learning process itself, can be used as well, as a strategy for promoting meta-cognition. Scallon (2003, cited referred to in Alves, 2007) promotes e-Portfolios as learning and assessment instruments grounded in the capacity of meta-cognition, which encourage students involved in the assessment (self-assessment) and reflection (meta-cognition) of their own learning, with a view to carrying our actions which result in improvement (self-regulation) or self-directed learning. These principles are pertinent to students and active professionals with an outlook based on life-long learning. “E-Portfolios have the potential to enhance teaching, learning and assessment practices” (Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005, p. 1).
Definitions of e-Portfolios vary considerably, but in general they all refer to “the electronic gathering of a range of student work collected and stored in some electronic format” (Fox, 2008, p. 4). However, Banks, in his reference to the e-Portfolio as “an electronic format for learners to record their work, their achievements and their goals, to reflect on their learning, and to share and be supported in this” (Banks, 2004, p. 3), identifies a number of key elements that should be considered and evident in the implementation and use of e-Portfolios. Firstly, he states that
e-Portfolios need to provide the possibility for learners to represent information in different formats and that students should also be able to take the information with them as they move between institutions (Banks, 2004, p. 3). Bank’s also talks of the e-Portfolio showing achievement, and stresses the significance of this feature. He talks about the tools used to demonstrate achievement and makes it clear that these should be suitable and appropriate in demonstrating evidence of the learner’s progress and successes against clearly stated criteria. Bank’s is also of the view that the e-Portfolio should be more than simply a random collection of completed work, stored electronically, with no particular focus. Bank’s definition of e-Portfolios and the supporting comment also talks about student goals and how important it is that the e-Portfolio provides a platform where students can share and reflect on these. Fox supports this thinking and it is his view that “goal setting and reflection are critical skills if we as educators are to have our students learn to take increasing responsibility for their own learning. They must be able to look at their work, reflect on this and determine what they have done well, where they have had difficulties, and what they could do in the future to make improvements” (Fox 2008, p. 4).
Bank’s writing goes on to speak about thinking processes, and the importance of developing higher-order thinking and reflection of learning. He explains that e-Portfolios must provide a place for feedback and feedforward from teachers, parents and peers. Supporting literature explains that by constantly monitoring portfolio content, both teachers and students can regulate their learning (Asturias, 1994, p. 698) and by doing so, teachers are able to detect what students think and feel, how their reasoning is processed, and what kinds of attitudes they display towards specific learning context. Regular and constant monitoring of
e-Portfolios can also provide the teacher with indicators of learning needs and requests for help. Garrison (1999, p. 94) refers to the fact that even when applied over a relatively short space of time, e-Portfolios can provide the teacher with clear indicators of learning needs and requests for help. Monitoring of the developmental processes of students’
e-Portfolios also provides teachers with the opportunity to reflect on their actual pedagogy and practice, stimulate questioning of their teaching strategies and methodologies and encourage teachers to look for new approaches to teaching.
Bank’s definition also refers to the opportunities students have with current technology, to present information in a variety of formats. Banks states “with the knowledge we now have about differing learning styles and multiple intelligences, it is essential students have opportunities to present their work in ways that are most meaningful for them. As a motivational tool, technology can be a powerful factor for some who struggle to see the relevance of what is happening in their classrooms relative to their daily lives” (Banks, 2004, p. 3).
Barrett (2005) refers to evidence in the e-Portfolio as being not only the completed work that the learner puts in the e-Portfolio, but also the “accompanying rationale that the learner provides, their argument as to why these artifacts constitute evidence of achieving specific goals, outcomes or standards” (p. 5).
From the literature, a common feature with other definitions of e-Portfolios is that they should be self-reflective collections. However, in the way that as with explicit teaching of skills and strategies that support as self- directed reflective practice, so does the explicit teaching of specific e-tools that could be used to support and demonstrate the learning process, achievements and critical, reflective thinking. The broadening of knowledge of available and appropriate e-tools has to be developed so that suitable choices can be made in reflecting and directing learning. The evaluation by students of use of e-tools and a reflection onf their progress made in using the tools is another essential aspect in the move towards meta-cognitive and self-directed learning practice.
In the literature, it is interesting to note that in 2007, Becta, the UK Government’s lead agency for Information and Communication Technology, was given the task of leading the Government’s e- learning strategy to see how the new technologies could be used to help improve educational outcomes. Within this strategy, Becta commissioned the University of Nottingham to conduct research into the impact of e-Portfolios on learning. Researchers studied eight e-Portfolio projects currently in operation in the UK to determine the impact e-Portfolios had on both learning processes and outcomes (Becta, 2007 in Fox, 2008, p. 14). Amongst other findings they reported “e-Portfolios had the greatest impact on learning when they were fully integrated into the day-to-day learning programme, rather than when they were used as a discreet entity.” The report goes on to say that where this integration occurred “there was likely to be a substantial impact both on learning processes and learning outcomes.” It was also interesting to note that these findings were consistent irrespective of student ability levels (Becta, 2007 in Fox, 2008, p. 14). In addition, it is interesting to note that literature supports the view that teachers using e-Portfolios, noted that the change in educational praxis was inherent in the actual implementation and use of the e-Portfolio. Stenmark (1999, p. 35) talks about a classroom situation in which e-Portfolios were used, where the teacher’s style of teaching actually changed. The potential that e-Portfolios have in bringing about a change in pedagogical practice has led to the conclusion that its adoption may not only benefit students but also provide an excellent opportunity for professional reflection and review of teaching practice for teachers. Kuhs says “perhaps the most important argument favouring the use of e-Portfolios is in its power to bring about change” (1994, p. 335).
It is relevant at this point to share that one real concern with e-Portfolios is the danger that the technology can become the end point rather than it being the tool to support learning. The e-Portfolio is not an end in itself but it is a platform that can be used to develop, support and demonstrate reflective learning practice, and self-directed learning. Fox states “it is important that unless there is a clear and focused purpose for the e-Portfolio, understood by teachers, students and parents, then it is possible that the technological ‘whistles and bells’ available so readily, and which students do so enjoy, can very easily become the primary focus for its use” (Fox, 2008, p. 15). He warns us “the e-Portfolio may have a great structure to support reflective, self-directed learning, but there is a possibility, that it may not support real learning based on reflective practice if used without a specific purpose in mind” (Fox, 2008, p. 15). He encourages teachers contemplating the development of e-Portfolios within their own classes, to “ensure they are very clear about the purpose, or purposes for the e-Portfolio beyond those of technical competence” Fox (2008, p. 15). He advises that teachers, when thinking of developing e-Portfolios, “should always be asking themselves if the e-Portfolio is about their teaching supported by student evidence or if the e-Portfolio is about student learning supported by teacher guidance” (Fox, 2008, p. 15).
Fox (2008) advises that for e-Portfolios to have the greatest impact on learning, teaching structures should not be too restrictive and students should be given the opportunity to be creative, innovative and imaginative in representing their thinking and presenting the process and product of their learning. He explains that school and classroom structures should allow for flexibility and creativity and explains that in the teaching situation, students should be given the opportunity to self-select material for inclusion in their e-Portfolios and they should also be encouraged to make and show connections across subject disciplines. It is his opinion that the e-Portfolio should provide more than simply evidence of learning but also evidence of process, reflection, celebrations and feedback of and for learning. Fox explains “ownership should ultimately remain with the students in the development of their e-Portfolio” so that over time “they develop revealing stories about their learning and the interrelationships between the many facets of their learning lives to enable personal growth and development to occur” (Fox, 2008, p. 15).
Fox outlines the benefits of using an e-Portfolio as a reflective journal and explains that it can be used as a “catalyst to stimulate and motivate students and to have them more highly engaged in their learning. It can assist students to see greater relevance in their learning. It can support the development of 21st century skills while encouraging creativity and innovation. In this age of information explosion it can help with the development of skills to process information and determine its relevance. It can encourage students to explore multiple answers to a range of issues. It can develop students’ ability to reflect on their learning and to set their own future learning goals. It can be a vehicle to help develop self-esteem through the sharing of quality work with feedback from a variety of sources” (Fox, 2008, p. 17). Fox strongly supports the view that the most significant benefit of the e-Portfolio is that it “can assist students in their understanding that learning is something they do, and that it is not something that teachers do to them.” He believes that e-Portfolios empower students to “take a greater degree of control over their own learning and move further along the path towards being truly confident, connected, actively involved, life-long learners” (Fox, 2008, p. 17).
Developing a knowledge of e-tools
Fox explains, “e-Portfolios can provide evidence of learning in a manner that is often difficult to replicate in any other way” (p. 4). He states “technology allows a greater degree of information, particularly related to process, to be included” and explains how “the use of video, sound and images, as well as text, can be used to track the learning journey and to provide evidence of the learning process and not simply the final end product” (Fox, 2008, p. 8).
An important aspect regarding the use of freely accessible e-tools in reflective practice is that technology allows for the students “voice” to be heard. Giving students the opportunity to record their own thoughts with respect to a finished piece of work or a learning process and file this within the e-Portfolio attached to the work itself, is a very powerful form of reflection and often very insightful. Fox (2008) is of the opinion “the power of ‘student voice’ should not be underestimated” (p. 8). He explains, “to hear students reflecting on their own work, in their own voice, with their own intonations and expressions, conveys meaning in a manner that is simply not possible in written form” (Fox, 2008, p. 8). He states “deep and meaningful reflection occurs where students have the opportunity to think critically about their work and speak openly about their progress in a secure environment” (p. 8) and goes on to say “this critical reflection helps personalise learning, encouraging students to question, to challenge and to celebrate their successes” (p. 8). He further explains that it “encourages students to review their progress over time and to look more critically at their own role in the learning process” (Fox, 2008, p. 8).
Conclusion
To be a good teacher and educator in the rapid changing and shifting landscape of the information age requires that we teach and model skills and strategies which support research, collaboration, information management, planning, reviewing, critical thinking, reflection and evaluation. Literature in this area of learning has highlighted the importance of encouraging and sustaining young people’s effective engagement with learning, and relevant research literature indicates that insightful and thoughtfully applied educational practices, can significantly affect the development of the habit of life-long learning, by heightening specialised competencies and abilities related to developing reflective practice which supports self-directed learning. Researchers believe that the modification of professional practice to promote and maintain the long-term maintenance of these learning skills is a key focus for educational renewal, as life-long learning becomes more recognised as a highly desirable attribute of learners.
As I engage in professional reflection of my own practice in this field, I aim to move towards creating an environment and providing learning contexts and experiences where the students in my class will have the opportunity to engage in and reflect on meaningful learning, with meta-cognitive awareness, and take responsibility to manage and monitor their learning. After reviewing the literature, I feel that I have a responsibility to understand how to facilitate such learning effectively in a variety of educational contexts. I believe that this kind of learning has the potential to create the cognitive presence that will support higher-order thinking, reflective practice and self-directed learners who are learners for life. I believe that developing e-Portfolios as the platform for reflective practice, will encourage and allow students to make connections across learning areas and give them the opportunity to show evidence of their thinking. Adopting a digital, online version of e-Portfolio, will allow the students to take on a multimedia dimension, and will provide greater visibility of their learning as they become collaborative, connected, life-long learners.
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